Hinduism and Budhism Two of the World´s Largest Religions

Religion is everywhere. It influences us all on a daily basis, whether we are religious or not. While the subject of religion is extremely controversial, roughly 84% of the world is religious in some way. (84) Out of all the worldly belief systems there are twenty-two main religions that are recognized as having the largest population of followers.(Major) Of these, there are some that are not recognized as or do not fall under the definition of religion in their countries of origin. Two of these Religions are Hinduism and Buddhism. While some do not see these as extremely prominent, they are pinocle belief systems in the Asian continent, with over 1 billion followers all together. (Feldhaus) These two religions along with few other traditional Asian belief systems are very different from traditional western belief systems in ways of their origins, practices and philosophy.(Chen) What is it that makes these Asian religions different from western religions? What is similar and differen t in Buddhism and Hinduism, and what makes them so unique in history and practice? Hinduism and Buddhism share very similar base belief systems. They both have the same basic foundations of Reincarnation, Karma, meditation, yoga and a focus on the soul.(Chen) But, aside from these points there some large differences in these religions, from their origin to their core focus. As with anything they have a beginning that is unique, and the beginning of these religions is what makes them soShow MoreRelatedBusiness Environment of Pre-British India13645 Words   |  55 Pagesdresses differently. Complexions range from white to black coffee; noses from Biblical spurs to Mongolian pugs; some people are very tall, others very short. Dress, like a botanical classification, reveals the exact identity of the bearer his or her religion, caste, region and occupation. The variety is endless.† India’s composite culture led to the spirit of tolerance; and acceptance of each other despit e differences. Fertile plains of India, made the struggle of survival easier – people developed habits

THE RISE OF THE PAPACY Essay examples - 1637 Words

Introduction Early in history, the Roman papacy consolidated its power. It became one of the most influential organizations in the medieval period. This rise to power resulted from the decline in the Western Empire, the leadership of Roman bishops, and special grants that gave the church land holdings. This rise to power caused some positive ramifications, such as the protection of the church from heresy. However, the absolute power of the pope also caused corruption and abuses, many of which would eventually spark the reformation. Rise of the Papacy Perhaps no other event was as influential to the rise of papacy in Rome as the decline of the Roman empire. With the decline of the empire, the church became the last refuge of†¦show more content†¦The church rose to the challenge, providing food and supplies to those in need.5 The church also took over many the tasks the government had abandoned, such as repairing structures and overseeing the law enforcement of Rome.6 Furthermore, as the Eastern Empire neglected Rome, the popes turned to other nations and peoples for support. This would eventually lead to the crowning of Pepin, a Frank, by the papacy. This provided Rome with protection from the enemy lombards who threatened to attack. In turn, the Franks were indebted to the church, and granted the papacy extensive lands.7 Strong Leadership The decline of the Western Empire was not the only factor contributing to the rise of the papacy. Strong leaders served to solidify the power of the Roman bishop. Through their efforts, the people began to see the Roman bishop as far more than a mere spiritual leader. They looked to the bishop for guidance in matters of state as well. An excellent example of this is found in Leo I. In AD 452, Attila the Hun marched towards Rome, intending to conquer the Western Roman Empire. He was met by a delegation from Rome. Among this delegation was the Roman bishop, Leo, in place of the Roman emperor. The men spoke, and Attila was apparently swayed from destroying Rome. Through it is questionable how much of Attila’s decision was based on the words of Leo and how much was based on Attila’s weary army, the people saw Leo as a hero.8 A similar event occurred a fewShow MoreRelatedThe Rise Of The Papacy Essay947 Words   |  4 PagesThe Rise of the Papacy There many Roman Catholics worldwide, who looks up to the Pope’s authority. The great question is, what is the foundation of the Papacy? The rise of the papacy came at a very important time in history, after the fall of Rome. In 380 CE, Emperor Theodosius I, made Nicene Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire. After this establishment, and the church was the top religion in Rome, order was a must. The head of the church normally known as the bishop, now knownRead MoreThe Rise of the Papacy948 Words   |  4 PagesINTRODUCTION This paper will look into the primary reasons for the rise of the Roman papacy to power, and a few of the many things that aided the papacy in getting there. The fall of the Roman Empire is clearly a key factor in the rise of the papacy, so a look into the factors that caused the fall of the Roman Empire is essential. Secondly, a look into how the church positioned itself, to step into the vacuum of power left behind by the fall of the Roman Empire will prove to be needed. Lastly,Read MoreThe Rise Of The Papacy1473 Words   |  6 PagesThe Rise of the Papacy Introduction The birth or the beginnings of the Papacy is a rather difficult task to really nail down to a specific time, place or person and also the growth of the Papacy was a rather slow and gradual process. In this modern age Rome has been associated with the birth place of the Papacy but history shows that Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Constantinople in the 4th century. In Constantinople the father of the church was referred to as the Pope. TheRead MoreThe Rise of the Papacy Essay1637 Words   |  7 PagesCHHI-301-D10 LUO FALL2013 PAPER 2 The Rise of the Papacy INTRO In the void left by the collapse of the Roman Empire, the bishop of Rome grew even more in both power and prestige beginning in the sixth century and continuing to the reformation in the ninth century. It is the aim of this paper to explain how and why the papacy in Rome became the center of power of the medieval world, the factors contributing to this dominance over Western Europe, and the positive and negative ramificationsRead MoreEssay about The Rise of the Papacy1770 Words   |  8 PagesThe Rise of the Papacy Barry Blankenship CHHI 301 - History of the Christian Church I Professor – Dr. Jeffrey S. Mayfield February 20, 2012 The Fall of A Great Empire and the Rise of the Papacy Before the fall of the Roman Empire you must stop and look at the power that was held within the millions of miles of land, building, people, cities, kings, and customs. The Roman Empire was not known for being just another city or empire but it was known for its strength, power and victoriesRead MoreThe Roman Empire And The Rise And Fall Of The Papacy1337 Words   |  6 Pagesin profound changes that demand a theological response. A candid but rational inquiry into the progress and establishment of Christianity may be considered a very essential part of the history of the Roman Empire and the rise and fall of the papacy. The history of the Papacy began over two thousand years ago with the reign of John Paul II. Peter, the humble fisherman of Galilee and an Apostle of Jesus Christ, became the figure head and the basis for the institution that has outlined not only theRead MoreThe Christian Era Of The Western Roman Empire1424 Words   |  6 Pagesthe full potential of the papacy was Leo the Great. In his two decades of servitude, he planted the seeds of Christian control to come over the next millennia in asserting the pope’s authority over other bishops by the power of the keys, granted by Jesus to Peter. In doing this Leo the Great positioned the pope as the sole arbiter in holy matters, establishing the position as that of enormous spiritual power. With the collapse of Roman authority in the West, the papacy found itself well positionedRead MoreChhi 301 Paper 21749 Words   |  7 PagesPAPER 2 Submitted to: Dr. Nickens Liberty University Online Lynchburg, VA by Richard M. Shouse June 17, 2013 Introduction: In response to the how and why the papacy in Rome became the center of power as it did. Shortly after the Fall of the Roman Empire there was a fight for power between several barbarian tribes like the Ostrogoth’s, Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Saxons, Huns, Franks, Lombard’s, Burundians, and others. The two major tribes were the Ostrogoth’sRead MoreThe Fall Of The Roman Empire1216 Words   |  5 Pagesthe void left by the fall of Western Roman Empire. Several factors led to the papacy in Rome becoming the center of power. First, the church gained unsolicited popularity through the early relationships with the apostles. The office of the pope came from the apostle Peter who Christ gave authority in the church, a prominent leader and appointed as the guide for His people. Pope Damasus I, got the foundation for papacy based on the conversation between Peter and Jesus. Damasus belief in the apostolicRead MoreComparative Essay on Uniformitarianism and Catasophism1386 Words   |  6 PagesThe Rise of Papacy The rise of the papacy came at a time when the Roman Empire collapsed and there was chaos as it related to the bishops who held office in Rome and what religion would be at the forefront of the representation of the west or east of Rome since its demise. The term â€Å"papacy† (papatus), meant to distinguish the Roman bishop’s office from all bishoprics (episcopatus), and The Head of the Roman Catholic Church the pope is considered the successor of Peter and the vicar of Christ

Web †Based Library System Free Essays

Overview of the Current State of Technology 1. 2. Local Literature De La Salle University Library System Migration: A Strategic Decision Library automation at DLSU-Manila had undergone a gradual but steady development. We will write a custom essay sample on Web – Based Library System or any similar topic only for you Order Now It started in 1985 when it implemented the MINISIS software/Hewlett Packard 3000 hardware package. The system was able to create 11,000 bibliographic records for Filipiniana and Reference collections. The massive hardware maintenance problem led to a management decision to phase out the system in 1988. At the later part of the same year MINISIS was replaced by its micro version known as CDS-ISIS.The software with one stand-alone XT computer facility automated the indexing of articles from more than 100 locally published periodicals including newspapers, magazines, and journals. Additional databases were created as the number of computers increased. The index became searchable simultaneously by several users when the computer facilities were networked in 1992. In the same year the CD-ROM technology was introduced for information retrieval of selected indexes and abstracts. Perla T. Garcia, Director of DLSU Library (2004) states the reasons for changes: * Technical Development and Vendor Stability Networking * Expansion of Databases â€Å"Despite the struggle the DLSU Library encountered in running the system during the first two years the circulation module was successfully implemented in February 1997. Toward the end of the decade the system was upgraded incorporating the suggestions made by the participating libraries. The new version was renamed T-Series which enhanced the loan process and improved the other information management functions of the earlier edition. † [1] The upgraded version of the system has become an inevitable feature at DLSU Library.However, when it was established that the vendor of the system has closed shop and has merged with another company, the University Library started to work on the future of the library system that can be considered to replace T-Series. These reasons are provided for the new system that will repl ace the T-series. Ateneo De Manila University Professional Library Information System The Library Information System uses a Local Area Network (LAN) for data retrieval handled by five file servers housed in the Intermediate Distribution Function Room (IDFR).Its resources can be accessed thru 24 client stations strategically distributed within the Library and other stations located in different offices in APS such as AHRC, CLE and the Dean of the Law School. In-house databases and commercial databases on CD-ROMs can be accessed by pressing the key letter guide displayed alongside each menu. In the Reference Services, the reference librarian also provides reference assistance to library clients in the most effective use of the library resources and services, aside from conducting guidance to legal bibliography for law students.To provide a plentiful supply of good and useful books in support of its academic curricula is the main goal of the library. Teresita C. Moran, APS Chief Librarian (2004) states the APS Library system features: Online Public Access Catalog This is a catalog where library books, theses, computer files, law materials housed at the Teehankee Library inclusive of uncatalogued but accessioned materials such as serials, law and business periodicals, cases decided by the Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, and Philippine laws. Features: Search limits to format (any,books, maps, computer files, etc. ) – Search limits to field (any title,author, subject, etc. ) – Use both simple and complex algorithm using Boolean logic (AND, OR, NOT, etc. ) -It provides user-controlled sort (by title,author,publisher, etc. ) – Work in conjunction with other modules – Provide safe environment to deal with potentially malicious users – Easily update for users convenience and accommodate their library needs – It provides selection and print options – Browse matches found in brief and full detail OPAC users are able to benefit greatly from up-to-date information – Patron can see actual Circulation status whether the item is on shelf, on loan, etc. – Password protected [2] WebPAC The Web Public Access Catalog is a guide to all the information sources to all the information sources of the library: books, compact discs, educational video tapes, theses, journals/serial s, laws, legal cases and journal articles through simple search by author, title and subject.Features: – It enables the user to search any author, subject, title and publisher – Specify year from-to Get current information from the library’s local database – Includes matches found in your query – Full MARC record display – Applies to any standard internet browser (e. g. Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer) [3] The APS Library operates in an open stack set up. It adapted two major systems of classifying book collections: first is the Library of Congress (LC) Classification system. This system is applied to Business and Information Technology holdings; second is the Los Angeles County Law Library Classifications (LACCLLC) scheme, which applies to the law holdings.Business and law journals are not classified as such but simply arranged alphabetically by title. The â€Å"The† code is the general classification used for both business and law theses. University of the Philippines iLib (Integrated Library System) â€Å"Technically, iLib is implemented in client-server architecture. In this configuration, all application programs run in the server (except for JavaScripts) and the user communicates with the server using a web browser, called the â€Å"thin client† in this architecture. No application is required to be installed in the user’s workstation other than the web browser to be able to use the system.All software updates, bug fixes, and enhancements are implemented in the server which can take effect immediately without requiring any updates or adjustments from the user’s end. † [4] Just like any common web-based systems, users can interact with the iLib system using a keyboard and mouse. Most interfaces in iLib require the user to key-in information in HTML forms using the keyboard and submit form data by clicking the â€Å"submit† buttons with a mouse. In most cases, hitting the â€Å"Enter† key (carriage return) from the keyboard can also trigger form submission.Arellano University Library System â€Å"The Uni versity Library comprises the following collections and services: Circulation Unit (foreign books on all fields of interest); Filipiniana Unit (books locally published in the Philippines, books written by Filipino author and books about the Philippines); Periodicals Unit (collection includes journals and magazines in various fields of interest); Reference Unit (collection of reference materials such as encyclopedias, dictionaries, handbook, almanac, geographical sources, etc. ; Audio-Visual Unit (a collection of audio-visual materials such as CD-ROM, VHS tapes amp; cassette tapes) and the Graduate School Unit (collection of books for post graduate level together with the thesis collection for reference purposes). As part of the library system, the adoption of computerized version of card catalog commonly known as OPAC (On-line Public Access Catalog) is used by the patrons as a medium of searching the library collection. † Arellano University library system offers different amenities and learning tools in comfortable environments which is intended for the greater benefit and convenience of its students.That is why they have improved their library with the use of OPAC to provide the users easiness and swiftly find what they are looking for. Far Eastern University Library System â€Å"The University Library is an indispensable educational and cultural repository. Refurbished and inaugurated on February 16, 1991 it has a book collection of more than 9 6,988 volumes and subscription to thousands of titles of magazines and journals in hard copies and in electronic format accessible through the EBSCO host Research Databases.The collection of books and other information resources fall under the following areas (easily accessible through the Online Public Access Catalog. † The FEU University Library aspires to be a leading academic information resource center and to be a dynamic partner in the University’s vision to develop responsible and well informed professionals who can contribute to the advancement of the global society. As usual nowadays, they provide an OPAC for easier researching of information from their libraries. 1. Foreign Literature Proposal for a University of Tennessee Digital Library Center James B. Lloyd (Special Collections Librarian and Chair, Digital Library Committee) and Bill Britten (Head of Library Systems, John C. Hodges Library) (2001) states: â€Å"All students, faculty, and researchers would benefit in a variety of ways because the digital format broadens and deepens access exponentially. All of the digital library content would be available to any number of authorized users at one time, no matter their location. Materials would be available for distance research and distance education. Access to digital content could be provided in ways that are simply not possible in the traditional environment. Text can be available fully searchable through natural language, multimedia can be nested, references can be linked to other references, reference tools can be digitized and used to organize digital collections, etc. A digital library serves all of the constituents of the University in new and better ways by enhancing the research potential ofUniversity faculty on all campuses while also serving the needs of distance education. † [3] The DLC will be a catalyst for change by creating the organizational and technical building blocks that allow the campus to conceive of new ways of creating, accessing, and applying information resources to research and teaching. It will select, produce, and maintain a wide range of networked resources for scholars and students at UT and elsewhere.It will collabor ate with University information technology professionals and research faculty to capitalize on institutional capabilities by focusing University resources on digital library projects that support the teaching and research of UT faculty, support the learning and research of UT students, and foster research about the digital library. An Intelligent Digital Library System for Biological Data Jeffrey E. Stone et al (2005) To make personalized service possible, a â€Å"user profile† representing the preferences of an individual user is constructed based upon past activities, goals indicated by the user, and options. Utilizing these user profiles, our system will make relevant information available to the user in an appropriate form, amount, and level of detail, and especially with minimal user effort. † [4] Due to the goal to serve the users better, a â€Å"user profile† is provided in the system. The user can personalized it and will have the ability to explore the system without much effort.It also allows the user to make feedbacks about the system, so that the system will know about the user’s areas of interest. The system is designed to act as a helper for the user who visits the digital library to find relevant information, with particular attention to the newly developed and modifie d documents in it. State University of New York Library System The Office of Library and Information Services in SUNY (1999) states their objectives about the library system.It includes: * Consortia-based capabilities such as union catalog and non-mediated requesting of library materials. * Excellent performance for all participating libraries. * Ability of the consortia to distribute the system across different servers, provide real-time mirroring of essential data, and permit the pooling of systems staff across the libraries. * The ability for the system to support the combined transaction load of SUNY libraries on all 64 campuses. A state-of-the-art integrated library system that provides access to public services, collection management, and technical services functions.* A system that enables each campus to view and maintain its own data with local control of profile and security configurations. * The ability to effectively convert data from the existing library systems into a new format that will preserve and insure its continued development and preservation, as well as the ability to migrate data to new generations of library systems. Allow for the integration of electronic resources that are made available through the SUNYConnect initiative (e. g. , bibliographic and full-text databases, image databases, electronic journals, etc. ). * To provide a means of, or an interface to, user authentication and user authorization vis-a-vis the SUNY-wide borrowing of library materials.* The ability to exploit emerging technologies and information resources to raise the level of library services, facilitate an increase in staff productivity, and improve effectiveness. 5] These objectives are made because SUNY is committed to providing exceptional library and information services to the university community by implementing an integrated library management system of superior functionality and cost efficiency. These are the type of functionality the SUNY libraries are seeking to incorporate. In short, this proposed system is part of the SUNYConnect virtual library initiative to provide access to the entire SUNY library collection via a common library management system and to enable patron-initiated remote borrowing.Harvard’s Library Digital Initiative: Building a First Generation Digital Library Infrastructure â€Å"Harvard University has funded a 5-year project to build a first generation production infrastructure to support digital library collections. Key project activities include education and consulting on core digital library issues (metadata, technical formats, reformatting, legal issues, preservation, interfaces and access), definin g an overall technical framework, and the development of a core set of systems to support digital collections (catalogs and access tools, repositories, user interfaces, access management, and naming).A significant portion of the funding has been allocated to grants to University units for contents projects, intended to inform and test the developing infrastructure. † [6] Harvard University has a large and unusually decentralized library system. Information technology and shared information systems have been used increasingly in the past two decades to bring coherence to library services while maintaining the independence of the University’s hundred or so libraries.Two years ago a task force of faculty, librarians, and administrative deans proposed that the University administration fund a project to: (1) make Harvard’s growing digital collections coherent and easy to use, through the development of a common framework and infrastructure, through communication and coordination, and through the use of incentives for collaborative work; (2) avoid wasteful duplicative development of digital library systems across the many independent departments of the University; (3) help curators build digital research collections through education, expert advice, the provision of core services, and the development of a technical infrastructure; and (4) integrate the new digital collections with Harvard’s strong tradition al collections. Tokyo University Library System â€Å"OPAC (Online Public Access Catalog) / Multilingual OPAC You can search the resources using the OPAC system for journals held in entire University libraries, and books acquired in/after 1985. They are currently in the process of incorporating the materials acquired before 1985 into their electronic system. † [7]The  University of Tokyo Library  in Tokyo, Japan, consists of the General Library, which provides services for all students and researchers affiliated with the university, Komaba Library, which supports the studies of the first two years of undergraduate education, Kashiwa Library, which functions as the back number center for natural science materials, as well as more than 60 faculty/institution libraries in various academic fields. The library has the largest collection in  Japan, holding a total of over 8,000,000 books. Using the OPAC, the students can easily find what they need for their research and studi es. The university is still maintaining the system to improve the services to provide for the users. How to cite Web – Based Library System, Papers

Clinical Chemistry In Medicine Essay Example For Students

Clinical Chemistry In Medicine Essay Of the diagnostic methods available to veterinarians, the clinicalchemistry test has developed into a valuable aid for localizing pathologicconditions. This test is actually a collection of specially selected individualtests. With just a small amount of whole blood or serum, many bodysystems can be analyzed. Some of the more common screenings giveinformation about the function of the kidneys, liver, and pancreas andabout muscle and bone disease. There are many blood chemistry testsavailable to doctors. This paper covers the some of the more commontests. Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) is an end-product of protein metabolism. Likemost of the other molecules in the body, amino acids are constantlyrenewed. In the course of this turnover, they may undergo deamination,the removal of the amino group. Deamination, which takes placeprincipally in the liver, results in the formation of ammonia. In the liver,the ammonia is quickly converted to urea, which is relatively nontoxic,and is then released into the bloodstream. In the blood, it is readilyremoved through the kidneys and excreted in the urine. Any disease orcondition that reduces glomerular filtration or increases proteincatabolism results in elevated BUN levels. Creatinine is another indicator of kidney function. Creatinine is a wasteproduct derived from creatine. It is freely filtered by the glomerulus andblood levels are useful for estimating glomerular filtration rate. Muscletissue contains phosphocreatinine which is converted to creatinine by anonenzymatic process. This spontaneous degradation occurs at a ratherconsistent rate (Merck, 1991). Causes of increases of both BUN and creatinine can be divided into threemajor categories: prerenal, renal, and postrenal. Prerenal causes includeheart disease, hypoadrenocorticism and shock. Postrenal causes includeurethral obstruction or lacerations of the ureter, bladder, or urethra. Truerenal disease from glomerular, tubular, or interstitial dysfunction raisesBUN and creatin ine levels when over 70% of the nephrons becomenonfunctional (Sodikoff, 1995). Glucose is a primary energy source for living organisms. The glucoselevel in blood is normally controlled to within narrow limits. Inadequateor excessive amounts of glucose or the inability to metabolize glucosecan affect nearly every system in the body. Low blood glucose levels(hypoglycemia) may be caused by pancreatic tumors (over-production ofinsulin), starvation, hypoadrenocorticism, hypopituitarism, and severeexertion. Elevated blood glucose levels (hyperglycemia) can occur indiabetes mellitus, hyperthyroidism, hyperadrenocorticism,hyperpituitarism, anoxia (because of the instability of liver glycogen inoxygen deficiency), certain physiologic conditions (exposure to cold,digestion) and pancreatic necrosis (because the pancreas produces insulinwhich controls blood glucose levels). Diabetes mellitus is caused by a deficiency in the secretion or action of insulin. During periods of low blood glucose, gl ucagonstimulates the breakdown of liver glycogen and inhibits glucosebreakdown by glycolysis in the liver and stimulates glucose synthesis bygluconeogenesis. This increases blood glucose. When glucose enters thebloodstream from the intestine after a carbohydrate-rich meal, theresulting increase in blood glucose causes increased insulin secretion anddecreased glucagon secretion. Insulin stimulates glucose uptake bymuscle tissue where glucose is converted to glucose-6-phosphate. Insulinalso activates glycogen synthase so that much of theglucose-6-phosphate is converted to glycogen. It also stimulates thestorage of excess fuels as fat (Lehninger, 1993). With insufficient insulin, glucose is not used by the tissues andaccumulates in the blood. The accumulated glucose then spills into theurine. Additional amounts of water are retained in urine because of theaccumulation of glucose and polyuria (excessive urination) results. Inorder to prevent dehydration, more water than normal is consum ed(polydipsia). In the absence of insulin, fatty acids released form adiposetissue are converted to ketone bodies (acetoacetic acid, B-hydroxybutyricacid, and acetone). Although ketone bodies can be used a energysources, insulin deficiency impairs the ability of tissues to use ketonebodies, which accumulate in the blood. Because they are acids, ketonesmay exhaust the ability of the body to maintain normal pH. Ketones areexcreted by the kidneys, drawing water with them into the urine. Ketonesare also negatively charged and draw positively charged ions (sodium,potassium, calcium) with them into urine. Some other results of diabetesmellitus are cataracts (because of abnormal glucose metabolism in thelens which results in the accumulation of water), abnormal neutrophilfunction (resulting in greater susceptibility to infection), and an enlargedliver (due to fat accumulation) (Fraser, 1991). Bilirubin is a bile pigment derived from the breakdown of heme by thereticuloendothelial system. T he reticuloendothelial system filters out anddestroys spent red blood cells yielding a free iron molecule andultimately, bilirubin. Bilirubin binds to serum albumin, which restricts itfrom urinary excretion, and is transported to the liver. In the liver,bilirubin is changed into bilirubin diglucuronide, which is sufficientlywater soluble to be secreted with other components of bile into the smallintestine. Impaired liver function or blocked bile secretion causesbilirubin to leak into the blood, resulting in a yellowing of the skin andeyeballs (jaundice). Determination of bilirubin concentration in the bloodis useful in diagnosing liver disease (Lehninger, 1993). Increasedbilirubin can also be caused by hemolysis, bile duct obstruction, fever,and starvation (Bistner, 1995). Two important serum lipids are cholesterol and triglycerides. Cholesterolis a precursor to bile salts and steroid hormones. The principle bile salts,taurocholic acid and glycocholic acid, are important in the dige stion offood and the solubilization of ingested fats. The desmolase reactionconverts cholesterol, in mitochondria, to pregnenolone which istransported to the endoplasmic reticulum and converted to progesterone. This is the precursor to all other steroid hormones (Garrett, 1995). Triglycerides are the main form in which lipids are stored and are thepredominant type of dietary lipid. They are stored in specialized cellscalled adipocytes (fat cells) under the skin, in the abdominal cavity, andin the mammary glands. As stored fuels, triglycerides have an advantageover polysaccharides because they are unhydrated and lack the extrawater weight of polysaccharides. Also, because the carbon atoms aremore reduced than those of sugars, oxidation of triglycerides yields morethan twice as much energy, gram for gram, as that of carbohydrates(Lehninger, 1993). Hyperlipidemia refers to an abnormally high concentration of triglycerideand/or cholesterol in the blood. Primary hyperlipidemia is an inheriteddisorder of lipid metabolism. Secondary hyperlipidemias are usuallyassociated with pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, proteinlosing glomerulonephropathies, glucocorticosteroid administration, a nd avariety of liver abnormalities. Hypolipidemia is almost always a result ofmalnutrition (Barrie, 1995). Alkaline phosphatase is present in high concentration in bone and liver. Their Eyes Were Watching God Essay ThesisThe ionized forms of calcium are biologically active. If the circulatinglevel falls, the bones are used as a source of calcium. Primary control of blood calcium is dependent on parathyroid hormone,calcitonin, and the presence of vitamin D. Parathyroid hormonemaintains blood calcium level by increasing its absorption in theintestines from food and reducing its excretion by the kidneys. Parathyroid hormone also stimulates the release of calcium into theblood stream from the bones. Hyperparathyroidism, caused by tumors ofthe parathyroid, causes the bones to lose too much calcium and becomesoft and fragile. Calcitonin produces a hypocalcemic effect by inhibitingthe effect of parathyroid hormone and preventing calcium from leavingbones. Vitamin D stimulates calcium and phosphate absorption in thesmall intestine and increases calcium and phosphate utilization frombone. Hypercalcemia may be caused by abnormal calcium/phosphorusratio, hyperparathyroidism, hypervitaminosis D, and hyperproteinemia. Hypocalcemia may be caused by hypoproteinemia, renal failure, orpancreatitis (Bistner, 1995). Because approximately 98 percent of the total body potassium is found atthe intracellular level, potassium is the major intracellular cation. Thiscation is filtered by the glomeruli in the kidneys and nearly completelyreabsorbed by the proximal tubules. It is then excreted by the distaltubules. There is no renal threshold for potassium and it continues to beexcreted in the urine even in low potassium states. Therefore, the bodyhas no mechanism to prevent excessive loss of potassium(Schmidt-Nielsen, 1995). Potassium plays a critical role in maintaining the normal cellular andmuscular function. Any imbalance of the bodys potassium level,increased or decreased, may result in neuromuscular dysfunction,especially in the heart muscle. Serious, and sometimes fatal, arrythmiasmay develop. A low serum potassium level, hypokalemia, occurs withmajor fluid loss in gastrointestinal disorders (i.e., vomit ing, diarrhea),renal disease, diuretic therapy, diabetes mellitus, or mineralocorticoiddysfunction (i.e., Cushings disease). An increased serum potassiumlevel, hyperkalemia, occurs most often in urinary obstruction, anuria, oracute renal disease (Bistner, 1995). Sodium and its related anions (i.e., chloride and bicarbonate) areprimarily responsible for the osmotic attraction and retention of water inthe extracellular fluid compartments. The endothelial membrane is freelypermeable to these small electrolytes. Sodium is the most abundantextracellular cation, however, very little is present intracellularly. Themain functions of sodium in the body include maintenance of membranepotentials and initiation of action potentials in excitable membranes. Thesodium concentration also largely determines the extracellular osmolarityand volume. The differential concentration of sodium is the principalforce for the movement of water across cellular membranes. In addition,sodium is involved in the a bsorption of glucose and some amino acidsfrom the gastrointestinal tract (Lehninger, 1993). Sodium is ingestedwith food and water, and is lost from the body in urine, feces, and sweat. Most sodium secreted into the GI tract is reabsorbed. The excretion ofsodium is regulated by the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system(Schmidt-Nielsen, 1995). Decreased serum sodium levels, hyponatremia, can be seen in adrenalinsufficiency, inadequate sodium intake, renal insufficiency, vomiting ordiarrhea, and uncontrolled diabetes mellitus. Hypernatremia may occur indehydration, water deficit, hyperadrenocorticism, and central nervoussystem trauma or disease (Bistner, 1995). Chloride is the major extracellular anion. Chloride and bicarbonate ionsare important in the maintenance of acid-base balance. When chloride inthe form of hydrochloric acid or ammonium chloride is lost, alkalosisfollows; when chloride is retained or ingested, acidosis follows. Elevatedserum chloride levels, hyperchloremia, can be seen in renal disease,dehydration, overtreatment with saline solution, and carbon dioxidedeficit (as occurs from hyperventilation). Decreased serum chloridelevels, hypochloremia, can be seen in diarrhea and vomiting, renaldisease, overtreatment with certain diuretics, diabetic acidosis,hypoventilation (as occurs in pneumonia or emphysema), and adrenalinsufficiency (de Morais, 1995). As seen above, one to two milliliters of blood can give a clinician a greatinsight to the way an animals systems are functioning. With many moretests available and being developed every day, diagnosis becomes lessinvasive to the patient. The more information that is made available tothe doctor allows a faster diagnosis and recovery for the patient. BibliographyBibliography Barrie, Joan and Timothy D. G. Watson. ?Hyperlipidemia.? Current Veterinary Therapy XII. Ed. John Bonagura. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1995. Bistner, Stephen l. Kirk and Bistners Handbook of Veterinary Procedures and Emergency Treatment. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1995. de Morais, HSA and William W. Muir. ?Strong Ions and Acid-Base Disorders.? Current Veterinary Therapy XII. Ed. John Bonagura. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1995. Fraser, Clarence M., ed. The Merck Veterinary Manual, Seventh Edition. Rahway, N. J.: Merck Co., 1991. Garrett, Reginald H. and Charles Grisham. Biochemistry. Fort Worth: Saunders College Publishing, 1995. Lehninger, Albert, David Nelson and Michael Cox. Principles of Biochemistry. New York: Worth Publishers, 1993. Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut. Animal Physiology: Adaptation and environment. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Sodikoff, Charles. Labratory Profiles of Small Animal Diseases. Santa Barbara: American Veterinary Publications, 1995. Science