How Knowledge and Learning Survived in the Middle Ages

They began as men alone, solitary ascetics in wattle huts in the desert who lived off berries and nuts, contemplating the nature of God and praying for salvation. Before long, others joined them, living nearby for comfort and safety rather than friendship or festivity. Individuals of wisdom and experience like Saint Anthony taught the ways of spiritual harmony to monks who sat at their feet. Rules were established by holy men like  Saint Pachomius  and Saint Benedict to govern what had become a community despite their intentions. Holy Learning Monasteries, abbeys, and priories were built to house men or women (or both, in the case of double monasteries) who sought spiritual peace. For the sake of their souls, people came to live lives of work, self-sacrifice, and strict religious observance to help fellow humans. Towns and sometimes cities grew around them, and the brothers or sisters served the secular community in many ways—by growing grain, making wine, raising sheep, and so on—while usually keeping separate. Monks and nuns filled many roles, perhaps the most significant and far-reaching being keepers of knowledge. Books and Manuscripts Very early in their collective history, the monasteries of Western Europe became repositories for manuscripts. Part of the Rule of Saint Benedict charged followers with reading holy writings every day. While knights underwent special education that prepared them for the battlefield and the court and artisans learned their craft from their masters, the contemplative life of a monk provided the perfect setting for learning to read and write, as well as acquiring and copying manuscripts whenever the opportunity arose. Reverence for books and their knowledge was not surprising among monastics, who turned creative energy toward writing their own books and turning manuscripts into beautiful works of art. Books were acquired, but not necessarily hoarded. Monasteries made money selling copied manuscripts by the page. A  book of hours  would be made expressly for the layman; one penny per page would be considered a fair price. It was not unknown for a monastery to sell part of its library for operating funds. Still, they prized books among their most precious treasures. Whenever they had time or a warning, if a monastic community came under attack—usually from raiders like the Danes or Magyars, but sometimes from their secular rulers—monks would take whatever treasures they could into hiding in the forest or another remote area until danger passed. Manuscripts were always among such valuables. Secular Concerns Though theology and spirituality dominated a monastic life, not all books collected in the library were religious. Histories, biographies, epic poetry, science, and mathematics were all collected and studied in the monastery. One might be more likely to find bibles, hymnals, graduals, lectionaries, or missals, but secular pursuits were also important to a seeker of knowledge. Thus was the monastery both a repository and distributor of wisdom and learning. Almost all scholarship took place inside the monastery until the 12th century, when Viking raids ceased as an expected part of everyday life. Occasionally a high-born lord would learn letters from his mother, but mostly it was the monks who taught the oblates⠁  Ã¢â‚¬â€monks-to-be⠁  Ã¢â‚¬â€in the classical tradition. Using first a stylus on wax, then later a quill and ink on parchment once command of their letters improved, young boys learned grammar, rhetoric, and logic. When they mastered these subjects, they moved on to arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Latin was the only language used during instruction. Discipline was strict, but not necessarily severe. Outgrowing Monastery Traditions Teachers did not always limit themselves to knowledge taught and retaught for centuries. There were advances in mathematics and astronomy from several sources, including Muslim influences. Teaching methods were not as dry as one might expect; in the 10th century, Gerbert, a renowned monastic, used practical demonstrations whenever possible. He created a prototypical telescope to observe heavenly bodies and used organistrum (a kind of hurdy-gurdy) to teach and practice music. Not all young men were suited to monastic life, though most were at first forced into it. Eventually, some monasteries began maintaining schools outside of their cloisters for men not destined for the cloth. In time, these secular schools grew, became more common, and evolved into universities. Still supported by the Church, they were no longer part of the monastic world. With the advent of the printing press, monks were no longer needed to transcribe manuscripts. Slowly, monastics relinquished those responsibilities to return to the purpose for which they originally gathered: the quest for spiritual peace. Their role as keepers of knowledge lasted a thousand years, making Renaissance movements and the birth of the modern age possible. Scholars will forever be in their debt. Resources and Further Reading Moorhouse, Geoffrey. Sun Dancing: A Medieval Vision. Collins, 2009.Rowling, Marjorie. Life in Medieval Times. Berkley Publishing Group, 1979.

The United States As A Democracy - 1344 Words

The United States is usually recognized as a liberal and ideal place to live by most people and countries because of their development of their single most powerful form of government, democracy. The very citizens of the United States believe that it is in their hands to influence all order and management of their beloved and praised country, however, the realism in this system has been blinded by their own people. The United States, though it may seem like a democracy because it emphasizes delegating popular sovereignty, is in no shape or form an absolute democracy where it gives the power to the people to make the decisions or influence law. The contribution of the people is in fact effective and needed, but it is not the citizens who†¦show more content†¦Although the United States may seem democratic, the truth is not in a single person representing the country, but instead a leading group, making it an oligarchy. These powerful members such as economic elites and organiz ed interest groups are responsible for influencing control over the general population and causing the most change to the American nation. The government system is structured a specific way where the average citizen is not directly contributing to its politics and legislature. The real people controlling the mass population in our states and country are an organized group of politicians that exercise the power and control over the country due to the natural instinct and tendency to seek power. For instance, common and public good distribution and regulation have been established by other higher officials and elites, not the people. Large-scale organizations tend to rise to oligarchies because they seek people with special qualities and elevated skills instead of the average uninformed and incompetent citizen who might not be capable to know how to benefit the nation. Most organizations and interest group leaders incline to education and have expertise, therefore the have an instinct to contribute to the power being enforced in our government. Americans do have some features central to the

A Review and Evaluation of Current Weight Control/Loss Interventions Free Essays

There is much debate regarding the most effective method of treating obesity. Most of the research has been done on adults; however, research is increasingly being done on children and adolescents as the prevalence of obesity in this population increases. Treatment of obesity includes many different methods, including various dietary, exercise, and behavioral interventions, medication, and surgery. We will write a custom essay sample on A Review and Evaluation of Current Weight Control/Loss Interventions or any similar topic only for you Order Now A study by Barlow, Trowbridge, Klish, and Dietz (2002) looked at various interventions recommended to overweight children and adolescents by different health care providers. The most common interventions recommended by health care providers included changes in eating patterns and limiting specific foods. Less frequently recommended interventions were low-fat diets and modest calorie restrictions. Very infrequently recommended interventions were very low-calorie diets and commercial diets. Several health care providers also listed â€Å"fruit and vegetables,† â€Å"portion control,† â€Å"increase water,† â€Å"fiber,† and â€Å"learn to determine hunger and fullness levels† as other interventions that they recommended. In the adolescent population, the most frequently recommended dietary intervention by all types of health care providers questioned was â€Å"limiting specific foods.† All types of health care providers were also highly likely to recommend increasing physical activity and limiting sedentary behaviors as physical activity interventions. Very few health care providers recommended medication, appetite suppressants, herbal remedies, or weight loss surgery. The current consensus is that the most effective weight loss and maintenance treatment includes a combination of caloric restriction, increased physical activity, and behavioral therapy, with extended treatment contact, weight loss satisfaction, and social support contributing to positive long-term outcomes in both obese adults and children (Williamson Stewart, 2005). Diets and Problems Associated with Dieting The increased pressure to alleviate the obesity epidemic led to a boom in the dieting industry. Twenty-five percent of men and 45% of women are currently trying to lose weight, equating to about 71 million Americans (Newstarget.com, 2005). In 1996, consumers spent $70 billion annually in health care costs, and an additional $33 billion per year, trying to lose weight or prevent the return of weight gain (Chatzky, 2002). In 2004, those values rose to $100 billion spent annually on health-care cost, and the US weight loss market value rose to $46.3 billion annually (Newstarget.com, 2005). Dieting products and services range from $1.29 for Slim-Fast bars up to $25,000 for gastric bypass (Chatzky, 2002) with the number of bariatric surgeries totaling about 140,000 procedures in 2003 (Newstarget.com, 2005). Sales of over-the-counter diet and herbal supplements totaled $16.8 billion in 2000 (Kane, 2001) and are expected to grow 11.5% to approximated $703 million by 2008 (NewsTarget.com, 2008). Diet drugs have been around for over 35 years but became generally accepted in the medical community by the early 1990’s. The FDA has approved several treatments as clinically safe (i.e. sibutramine and orlistat) for those individuals with a BMI 30 or BMI 27-29 with one or more obesity related co-morbidity (ADA, 1997). There are amphetamine-like derivates available for short-term use but weight gain often occurs once discontinued. The risks associated with obesity drugs are neurotoxicity, primary pulmonary hypertension, and becoming reliant on the medication as opposed to making desired healthy lifestyle changes (ADA, 2002). Many of the overthecounter products have no proven efficacy or short- or long-term weight loss (ADA, 2002). Many Americans have turned to various dieting methods as weight control measures, leading to the ‘yo-yo’ dieting affect, ultimately contributing to the ever-increasing obesity rates. Commercial structured programs, such as Weight Watchers, Jenny Craig and LA Weight Loss, are common approaches followed due to their convenience and support system. It is estimated that 7.1 million American frequent these commercial weight loss centers and their revenues are expected to grow 11% to $2 billion annually by 2008 (Newstarget.com, 2008). Miller (1999) performed a study to examine the history and effectiveness of diet and exercise in obesity therapy and to determine the best approach for future interventions. He summarized the dieting trends throughout the years with the initial strategy of the late 1950s to early 1960s focused on total fasting, which brought about quick weight loss but also increased risk of death due to serious loss of lean muscle mass and electrolytes. By the late 1960s to early 1970s, the emergence of the high protein/low carbohydrate diets became popular. These involved a diet with 5-10% of energy calories from carbohydrate and a resultant high fat content (50-70% of calories) which relied on the high protein foods to minimize muscle catabolism and the low carbohydrate level to maintain a state of ketosis to theoretically increase fat burning (Miller 1999). The side effects ranged from nausea, hyperuricemia, fatigue and refeeding edema. In the mid 1970s, the trend shifted towards very low calorie liquid diets (VLCD) with ~300-400 kcal/day, which caused obvious weight loss through muscle catabolism and water release. The FDA terminated the use of this diet since ventricular arrhythmias resulted in 58 deaths. In the 1980s, the VLCD made a revival but at the level of 450-500 kcal/day, with fat content of ~2-18% of total calories, and up to 800 kcal/day for those individuals who were more active. Gallbladder disease and cardiac problems surfaced as side effects of this diet (Miller 1999). The low calorie commercial franchised programs such as Jenny Craig and Nutri/Systems arose in the 1980s as well. Meals were pre-packaged with ~1100-1200 kcal/day with the breakdown of energy approximately at 20% from protein, 20% from fat and 60% from carbohydrate. These programs found improved compliance compared to the VLCD, however a similar health risk was found to negatively impact the heart. Since the 1980s, numerous dieting books have hit the stores with many best sellers (i.e. Pritkins and Fit for Life). Despite the increased dieting trends, Miller (1999) noted that the NHANES determined the percentage of fat from kilocalories has dropped in the American diet but total energy has increased, particularly from refined or added sugars in the diet; in addition, obese individuals tend to consume less dietary fiber. Most people have attempted more than one diet method in their weight loss attempts with the average attempting a new method twice a year (FTC, 1997). Miller (1999) found that over the past 40 years, most dieting techniques cycle in and out of popularity and that many are actually hazardous to the health. Miller summarized that the scientific community data indicated that a 15-week diet or diet plus exercise program led to a weight loss of about 11 kg in which 60-80% of the weight lost was kept off after one year, although most studies had limited long-term follow-up data and those available suggest that relapse to pre-diet weight typically occurred after 3-5 years. Many of the diets were difficult to assess due to their high dropout rates (some as high as 80%). Nutrition education and behavior modification programs, to include community education programs, worksite interventions, and home correspondence courses, typically resulted in ~10 kg weight loss with a 33% and 95% post-diet weight relapse at three and five years respectively. The commercial weight loss industry supplied little data over the last two decades, with much of it proclaimed scientifically inadequate due to small sample size, high dropout rates, poor study design and inadequate follow-up periods. Of the physician-directed programs, most did not result in a desired weight loss but better control of some of the co-morbidities associated with obesity (diabetes, CVD, etc.) (FTC, 1997). How to cite A Review and Evaluation of Current Weight Control/Loss Interventions, Papers